Not long after that, Allah took his life, and Sayyiduna Ali also ruled for a while before he passed away. Up until that time, the Islamic government had not expanded; it was confined to the Arabian Peninsula, including regions like Medina, Mecca, and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula. After some time, the leadership was given to Rashidu. During his time, he did some preaching, but he did not establish a state. Some of his followers continued to commit lies and oppression. He then integrated Arab customs into the traditions of the Arab pagans. From there, the Umayyads established their dynasty. From 661 to 750, the Umayyad dynasty was an extensive Islamic empire, having expanded remarkably. The Umayyads conquered the entire Arabian Peninsula. When we look at the areas they dominated, they include: * Mecca * Medina * Damascus in Syria * Kufa * Istanbul * Cordoba * Palestine * Cairo They also occupied other parts of the Arabian Peninsula, but they did not manage to enter Persia and Greece. During the Umayyad caliphate, non-Muslims were not oppressed, and their system was different from that of the Rashidu Caliphate. This attracted non-Muslims to embrace Islam. The sheer power of the Umayyad rule led to rumors of moving the Islamic headquarters from Medina to Damascus, which necessitated their return to Medina to avoid an Islamic revolution. As a result, there were two Islamic headquarters, one in Damascus and one in Medina, which somewhat affected the prestige of Islam at that time. From 750 to 1258, the Abbasids established their dynasty. When the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) passed away, the Abbasid dynasty had been in control for many years. They dominated the entire Gulf region and parts of Europe. The Abbasid Empire included areas such as: * Persia * Andalusia * India * Asia * Iraq They also controlled parts of Africa, including Libya, Morocco, Algeria, and beyond the Blue Nile River. Islam had spread along the coast of Mali, reaching Sudan, and then further into the southern regions of Africa and the Sahara, even reaching Egypt. The Abbasid capital was in Baghdad. During this period, non-Muslims paid a tax called *jizyah*, which was 2.5% and was used for charity. The administration of the Abbasid Empire was very strong, and it, along with the Umayyad dynasty, was considered the greatest Islamic empire, lasting for 1,425 years. Later, some members of the Umayyad family moved to Andalusia, where they established an Arab dynasty, while others established the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul, Turkey. Abbas founded the Abbasid dynasty in between. Later, some members of the Abbasid nobility moved to Samanid and other regions, establishing the Abbasid dynasty there. The Abbasid Empire was one of the largest and most powerful at that time, boasting a large military force. During this period, Arabic was the only official language, and there were six kings within the empire, alongside Abbasid followers. Around 1355 Hijrah, when the Prophet Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina, European colonizers interfered with the Arab Empire. They introduced new practices, such as allowing women to rule, similar to practices in other regions like India and China, where female heirs could be found. In Arabic, this ruler is known as *Sultanah*. The title *Empress* could be attained through marriage to the king, being the king’s concubine, or his maid. The position is secured by giving birth to a male child. When it was known that the king’s wife was pregnant, all the kingdom's herbalists would examine her health. If she was a concubine, she would be isolated to prevent poisoning or any harm to the unborn child. Since the Europeans introduced this system, kings started dying frequently, often within a year. The king would either die, or his wife, or their male child. This led to a situation where the nobility of the Samanid kingdom began to fear ruling, and the crown princes dreaded becoming sultans in the empire.